Accounting for human behavior Essay

In order to survive and interact with the other members of the society, it is crucial for us to understand what the other people are thinking about and what the underlying factors that contribute to their behavior are. In our daily life, people are continuously interpreting and explaining others behavior, sometimes even without aware of it themselves. How does this knowledge of interpreting the others come about? And is it a reliable method?Most people are using common sense explanation to interpret human behavior, while social scientists will explain our world by social science theories. What are they? And which one can give a more reliable and accurate account for human behavior?Common Sense Explanations are formed basing on individual’s past experiences or were passed down from the last generations. It is the most basic and simple form of knowledge that helps us to survive. For instance, people understand that it will be hurt when a ball is throwing at them and in result, they will run away from it. We use the common sense to perceive the world we are living in. It is unimaginable if a person does not possess any common sense at all. See more: Old Age Problem essay Social Science Theories, like the theories in natural science, are derived from scientific methods. They are either induced or deduced from different task or experiment. But since the subject matter in social sciences is completely different from that of natural science, observation, survey and interview which sometimes involves a control group, are the methodology used to test the experimental hypotheses, instead of using laboratory experiments. Hence, social science theories are backed up by empirical studies and data, and therefore should be more widely applicable, objective and reliability to explain human behavior. Unlike social science theories, â€Å"common sense† is held by everyone. Therefore, people can draw on this knowledge immediately when they want to analysis behavior of the others and giving a faster response to the situation. However, the strength of common sense is also its greatest weakness. In many cases, common sense explanation cannot give us a satisfactory answer because it has oversimplified the circumstance. For instance, it is a general belief that the more violent movies a child watches, the more aggressive he will be. People may neglect other factors,  such as family backgrounds, in contributing to children’s aggressive behavior, which had proved to be an equally crucial by many social scientists. In addition, human behaviors are complex as well as unique to each individual. Different culture, race, living environment and family history will lead to the formation of different behaviors. Similarly, common sense explanation varies in different culture, society and individual, and therefore, actually is not the same to everyone in our society. How can a foreigner understand all the traditional attitudes and values of a Chinese? Likewise, it is not easy for us to comprehend all the behaviors of the foreigners. As a result, there will be bias if we rely on common sense explanation as it is too generalized and oversimplified without really investigating the underlying factors behind the scene. In contrast, social sciences theories can supplement the weakness of common sense explanation as each theory is based on a numbers of hypotheses which in turn will be tested, though the methodology used is somewhat different from that of natural science. In other words, social science theories are more reliable and valid than that of common sense explanations. Moreover, social science theories are more widely applicable as they are derived from a great numbers of data which are collected from different channels and people. Some people may argue that some social sciences theories are similar to our common sense explanations, for which is a coincident that we cannot deny since many hypotheses are formed with the basis of common sense assumptions. People can use common sense to explain or judge most things we encounter in our daily life. However, when we come to analyze more complicated matters, such as human behaviors, common sense explanation alone would be insufficient. In these circumstances, social science theories, which have been undergoing empirical researches and experiments, are more reliable. We cannot ignore the importance of â€Å"common sense† since it is a basic knowledge that people possessed, whereas social science theories may not be  known to most people. And in many cases common sense is the foundation of many hypotheses, and thus is the origin of a theory. But it is crucial to note that when people want to have an in-depth, comparatively reliable and valid explanation, social science theories should be employed. REFERENCE Roth (1990), Introduction to Psychology, United Kingdom: The Open University. Gross (1992), Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour, p.19-23, London: Hodder & Stoughton

Feminism and Misandry in Popular Culture Essay

Feminism is dead. What exactly do I mean? Feminism is meant to be about gender equality, but this is no longer true. Instead, feminism has become synonymous with misandry—the hatred of men. Men are society’s official scapegoats while women are portrayed as victims. Men are often penalized for the collective guilt of men throughout history, and women feel they deserve compensation for this perceived victimization in the past. While the early feminist movement ensured equal opportunity for women, it now serves women’s special interests. Popular opinion portrays men as violent and animalistic, while women are viewed as caring and matronly. This is a misnomer perpetuated by a gynocentric society. According to a 2003 study by the Domestic Violence Research Center, it is estimated that 6 million men are victims of domestic violence in Canada alone, accounting for nearly half of all instances of domestic violence. However, fewer than 100,000 cases of male domestic abuse were reported. While it is true that women make up a larger percentage of rape victims, one in thirty-three men is raped or attempted to be raped by a woman. Even more shocking is that less than 1% of all male rape cases are ever reported. Barbara Kay, a Canadian gender equalist, says that the disparity between the reported cases and estimated cases is†¦ â€Å"Due to cultural norms that require men to present a strong facade†¦ men are less likely to verbalize fear of any kind. † Further discrimination happens against fathers. It is commonly assumed that the best interests of the child coincide with the best interests of the mother, but this simply isn’t true. In the study conducted by Patrick Fagan and Dorothy Hanks published in The Child Abuse Crisis: The Disintegration of Marriage, Family, and the American Community, the most likely perpetrator of abuse to a child is the child’s mother. The father is the parent most likely to be the protector of children, and the same study found that the presence of a father greatly lessens the risk of child sexual abuse. Yet many child custody laws in Canada and the United States strongly favor women. Approximately 70% of all custody cases are awarded to women in Western culture, and this percentage drastically increases in America and in the South. Most significantly, though, is the guilt that men must endure. Masculine traits are considered shameful or low-brow, while feminine traits are viewed as refined or high-brow. Overt manliness is something likened to piggishness or idiocy. Male sexuality is depicted as lustful harassment, while female sexuality is flaunted as beautiful and elegant. The hatred of men has become so mainstream that even Hallmark—known for its politically correct sentiments—features cards reading â€Å"There are plenty of things easier than finding a good man†¦ Nailing Jell-O to a tree, for instance. † or â€Å"Men are scum†¦ Excuse me. For a second there, I was feeling generous. † Hallmark is not the only one making money off of popular prejudice: TV shows, books, comic strips and even the new media all pander to this sexist trend. Western culture is seen as the height of the civil rights movement. Great activists like Louisa G. Anderson and Susan B. Anthony revolutionized Britain, America and the rest of the world. Modern feminism, however, caters to the personal gain and special interests of women. Gender equality applies to men and women alike, despite efforts by feminist elitist to degrade and exclude the male gender. Men endure much of the same injustice as women. Misandry is of equal importance to misogyny, and should be treated with the same intolerance.

Supply Chain Management Issues in Boeing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Supply Chain Management Issues in Boeing - Essay Example This has also put all other stakeholders into serious problems. This paper presents an analysis of the supply chain of Boeing in the context of various facets of the management of the supply chain by the company. In response to A 380 airliner from its arch rival Boeing Corporation embarked on the manufacture of 'Boeing787 Dreamliner' a light weight model with seating capacity of 210 to 296 passengers. "The 787 Dreamliner is a family of new airplanes that promises to bring big-jet comfort and economics to the mid-size market. The Boeing 787 incorporates advanced materials, systems and engines to provide a 20% improvement in fuel performance on a per-passenger basis. The 787-8 Dreamliner will carry 210 to 250 passengers about 7,650 to 8,200 nautical miles and the 787-9 will carry 250 to 290 passengers about 8,000 to 8,500 nautical miles (Boeing Commercial Aerospace). The first delivery was scheduled for May 2008 which now has been pushed as far as the second quarter of 2009. With firm orders worth $ 144 billion the company has found serious issues with its global supply chain as a result of which the company has postponed the delivery of the airliner a number of times causing serious concerns to the major airlines that have placed orders with Boeing for this aircrafts. The production process of making the new aircraft with new light weight composite materials in itself is a challenge for the company. In addition the company has made drastic changes in its supply chain which eventually has hit the progress in the manufacture and delivery of Dreamliner. The way in which the company has organized its supply chain for 787 manufacturing has put a complicated way in which the supply chain partnering firms share risks and profits from the airliner. This implies that the financial burden will be put up and down on the firms in the chain as every company would like to protect their own financial interest. This would necessarily result in chaos in the short-term and considerable delays in the completion of the manufacture of the product which will make everyone in the line suffer. The real issue is Boeing attempted to use what appears to be an automotive product like production pr ocess in which all the parts and components in a pre-fabricated form are brought the assembly line. This has necessitated sections of the aircraft to be flown out of far off locations in Japan, Italy, South Carolina and Kansas to be assembled in Washington within a short time of as much as three days. Apart from this there are various other supply chain issues being faced by the company which are explored by this paper. Boeing and Supplier Quality Management Manufacture of Boeing 787 Dreamliner represents a complete shift in the manufacturing philosophy of Boeing Corporation as the company

Shifts in Values from Renaissance to Modern Age Research Paper

Shifts in Values from Renaissance to Modern Age - Research Paper Example This text explores such differences and similarities between these two ages. In terms of philosophy, it is evident that certain cultural values have changed from the Renaissance to today. Perhaps, it is of uttermost importance to start the text by defining the most crucial terminologies involved. Most historians would describe the Renaissance as a cultural rebirth that commenced in Florence, Italy, before dispersal to the other parts of Europe from approximately 1300 to 1600. During this time, â€Å"Europeans underwent a transformed interest in Roman and classical Greek civilization, and consequently, in learning mathematics, science, philosophy, science, and the arts† (Adams, 2005, p. 87). Christianity took a center stage during the renaissance and its influence can be felt in the dawn of modern science. Men during the renaissance were expected to be outstandingly well-rounded and learned in various subjects. The Renaissance brought about the end of the middle Ages and embrac ed for the first time the ideals of the modern world. For this reason, it is seen as a changeover era between the middle ages and modern times. As Adams (2005) asserts, â€Å"no single ideology or philosophy dictated the intellectual life of the Renaissance period† (p. 143). Humanists during the early days had stressed a supple approach to the issues of society and the fast life in service of all human beings. Renaissance philosophers, during the second part of the 15th century including Marsilio FICINO in Florence, embraced metaphysical speculation. Nonetheless, Plato never replaced Aristotle as the leading philosopher in many universities. However, there was an effort aimed towards philosophical syncretism, to combine conflicting theories and philosophies, and establish common ground for accord with regards to the truth just like Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola. Renaissance science comprised largely of the study of physics, medicine, and mathematics, depending on old masters, such as Aristotle, Euclid, and Galen. Experimental science in alchemy and anatomy led to the invention within and outside university surroundings. It is this invention of the university environment that ushered in the modern times. Many of the philosophical though today happens in the confines of universities and institutions of higher learning. Philosophy has taken the form of a discipline. However, the Renaissance had a darker side. Despite interest in philosophical ideas, violent and pestilent death was frequent, and warfare was widespread. There was lots of interest in things that embraced the occult, astrology, and magic. It is during this time that the formally authorized persecution for witchcraft commenced. A number of intellectuals felt a deep cynicism about the corruptions and evils of society as evident in the frequently savage humanist opposers of Desiderius Erasmus and Giovanni Francesco Poggio Bracciolini. Nicolo Machiavelli, one of the supreme Renaissance thinkers ca me up with a realistic science about human nature with regards to reforming the Italian society and the making of a civil life that is immensely secure. Cassirer & Domandi (2010) state that, â€Å"Machiavelli’s republican ideals influenced by a realistic viewpoint of politics and the inevitability of vibrant change were the most innovative contribution of the Renaissance towards the modern world† ( p. 75). Undoubtedly, the Renaissance Era was influential in that it lived on in instituted standards of literature and taste and an

Waste water in UAE Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Waste water in UAE - Personal Statement Example t decades, rapid economic development and an exponentially expanding population have compelled the government to rely on non-conventional water resources. Some of the sources include desalination (Madwar & Tarazi, 2013) or treated wastewater as optional sources of water for irrigation purposes (MoHUD, 2014). The treated wastewater is widely applied as marginal water suitable for the cultivating of forages, in landscaping, in fruit farms among other uses (Alhumoud, et al, 2010). In the UAE, the yearly production of treated wastewater is averagely 450 million cubic meters, approximately 8% of the nation’s water capacity (Issa, et al, 2012). However, only approximately 60% percent of the treated wastewater is reused in the required areas. The low efficiency stems from the low capacity of the of the country’s distributing system following water treatment (Hamad, et al, 2013: Al-katheeri, 2008). Further, the reuse of treated wastewater presents several forms of risks that ex tend to the environment, health economic and strategic (Radan, 2010). The disturbing fact, however, is the challenges encountered in measuring the risks. The proposal presents an assessment of different options for the reuse of the treated wastewater and maps out the risks faced in the various phases. It further creates a basis for coming to terms with the continuation of the work plan that can establish financial functions that represent various risks. Through the synthesis of existing literature, the report seeks to establish the bet course of action for salvaging the situation. Hamad, A., Ahmed, A., & Douboni, M. (2013). Cost-effective wastewater treatment and recycling in mini-plants using mass integration. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 4(4), 246-256. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10098-002-0166-7 Worku, G. B. (2013). Demand for improved public transport services in the UAE: A contingent valuation study in Dubai. International Journal of Business and Management, 8(10),

Discussion Questions WK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion Questions WK - Essay Example If we were to measure over a specific period of time, we would see that these two variables could be measured in the environment and to have sustained about an equal amount of pollution over time, considering that the amount of pollution to each variable would be constant. These variables would then be said to be correlational. In that sense, one sees that these variables are good examples. Question 2: ?If a researcher were studying the effects of a teaching method on patient learning outcomes, how must he or she word the research question (different from the hypothesis) to use a t-test to test for statistical differences? What type of data must he or she collect ( interval, ratio, ordinal, nominal)? Why? *Hint: An example of a research question is: Will drug B do a better job of curing acne then drug A? (250 words) In order to do any kind of experiment, one must have a control subject. In order to keep this particular study viable for the control part of the experiment, a t-test mus t be conducted. According to Allen (2004), â€Å"Under a set of assumptions that are usually referred to as the Gauss-Markov conditions, the t test can be used to test the significance of a regression†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (pp. 66).

The role of personnal selling in KFC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The role of personnal selling in KFC - Essay Example KFC came to Singapore in 1977 with its first outlet on Somerset Road. It took the firm 30 years, to establish over 70 outlets which signify the popularity of the chain (KFC 2009). KFCs menu includes Original Recipe chicken – having the same exuberating recipe Colonel Harland Sanders created more than a half-century ago. Customers around the world also enjoy a variety of more than 300 other products – like the Shrooms Burger in Singapore (KFC 2009). KFC Singapore’s performance in 2007 was at its peak. The sales climbed 3.0% to RM280.2 million from RM272.0 million in 2006; while profit before tax augmented 12.3% to RM10.1 million from RM9.0 million the year before (QSRbrands 2007). KFC Singapore attained these record sales with their varied deals throughout the year year. In March, KFC Singapore used its energetic 30th Anniversary media campaign to introduce the new KFC logo, uniform and packing. KFC Singapore also coupled this with their toasted range with Cheesy BBQ Meltz in April the same year. By the end of the year, KFC Singapore had 69 stores, with four new restaurants, five repositioned and eight closures (QSRbrands 2007). But due to the global crunch, sales are declining overall. New ideas and menu items are needed at for the business to keep up with its performance in 2007 (Uniquely Singapore 2009). Moreover cost effective methods of marketing products have to be utilized like personal selling to boost the sales graph which is now taking a downward trend. Technology -Technology plays an eminent role in the growth of an economy. Singapore has the largest and most IT-savvy Port in the world which enables businesses to have efficiency in the supply chain (Field 2002). The country has a very sophisticated telecommunications infrastructure which gives the opportunity to reach new customers and keep a closer check on their preferences (Field 2002). Economic - Singapore is considered as one of the best economies for

IT INFRASTRUCTURE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

IT INFRASTRUCTURE - Essay Example The services are offered in a multi-specialty manner under one roof and multiple consultants and doctors operate from each specialty to reduce patient queuing time. There is also a modular operating room to minimize Hospital Acquired infections in surgical patients as well as an amazing and completely entertaining children’s zone and child care area attached to the pediatric wing. The hospital offers 24-hour service in selected emergency situations, pharmacy GP and ambulance. As mentioned earlier, the hospital provide a host of services including urology, heart care, child care, weight loss, genecology, minimal access surgery and women wellness programs. These services are highly sensitive and patients sometimes demand to be served by their preferred doctors. The hospital, in the past was overwhelmed by the demand and the lack of scheduling mechanism to distribute patients to available consulting doctors efficiently. This resulted in a lot of inconveniences in terms of waiting time the associated health repercussions. The hospital in leveraging technology decided to introduce a doctor and patient management system known as Inquiry, Booking and Reservation system. This system allow patient to inquire for their preferred consultant doctors and book for an appropriate session guided by the schedule of the doctor. Most of its clients make reservations through direct calls made to the centre. The customer service department receives the calls, book clients an d advice on the best visit schedules according to the physicists calendar of events. In dire scenarios, the hospital allows direct communication between clients and their doctors for better service delivery. Therefore, telephone communication is the de facto medium although other channels such as eMail and texts are employed. The clinic has an implementation of VoIP. However, the system has been associated with some drawbacks. Some of the clients have

Consumer and Buyer Behavior; An investigation into UK Mobile Phone Essay

Consumer and Buyer Behavior; An investigation into UK Mobile Phone network providers - Essay Example Current study focuses on the examination of buyer and consumer behaviour in British market regarding a particular industrial sector, this of mobile phones; the specific part of the industry under analysis is that of the mobile network providers. In Britain there are no many mobile network providers: they are approximately five: Orange, Vodafone, T-mobile, O2 and 3G. These network providers also serve as ‘hosts’ for other – limited – networks like Virgin and OneTel. The research made on the various aspects of activities of these firms within the British market proved that they all have significant advantages and weaknesses. The empirical research (survey) that was conducted for this study led to the conclusion that British industry of mobile network providers is divided in 5 major parts responding to the firms named above; the entrance of a new firm in the specific market would be a challenging initiative; however it is necessary that existing infrastructure and services are updated in order to ensure the competitiveness of these firms in the long term. The development of mobile networks providers industry in Britain has been gradual. Vodafone and O2 has been in the specific sector of British market for quite a long while the other firms, Vodafone, Orange and 3G followed later. In fact, 3G is a quite recent firm in the specific industrial sector; the firm entered this sector in 2003; it is the first firm operating in this industry that offered to its clients the third generation technology. It should be noticed that the competition in this industry remains high despite the fact that no new (after 2003 and the entrance of 3G) firms have entered the specific industry. The increase of competition in all commercial areas is a phenomenon that has been extensively analyzed in the literature and the empirical research. In accordance with Douglas et al. (1989, 437) ‘recent years have witnessed

Leadership Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Leadership Theories - Essay Example ing and scanning the environment, coaching people working under him, making regular input in the work of subordinates, and managing activities (Hackman & Wageman, 2005). Transactional theory argues that a leader should have power and formal position which is used to control, reward, and punish employees. Leadership is seen as a give and take between leader and his subordinates. This theory calls for a leader to make sure that employees are motivated enough to perform at their highest potential. Transformational theory is focused more on understanding employees and treating them with respect in order to achieve good results. This theory does not see leadership as merely a transaction between two parties but much more than that. This theory argues that a leader’s job is to make an environment that is feasible for work and in which employees are able to work together like a well oiled machine. A leader works to develop this environment and then the rest is done by employees. Contingency theory takes on a different view and argues that effective leadership is heavily dependent on factors like environment and technology (Woodward, 1958). A good leader has to evaluate the environment and make decisions accordingly. According to this theory, there is no set outline that a good leader can follow instead he or she has to decide differently on a case by case basis. The theory that best outlines effective leadership in an organization is the transformational leadership theory. This theory calls for motivating employees and giving them power and independence. This theory gives importance to subordinates and views them as assets. This is why transformational theory of leadership is the best and can help foster effective leadership in an

Environmental factors affecting Nespresso in China Essay Example for Free

Environmental factors affecting Nespresso in China Essay The micro environment on the other hand comprises the industry and market.   Religion, education, ethnicity, education and language, age group, family, cross cultural differences. In 1978, the Chinese government introduced a birth control policy of one child per family. (Newsweek 2014) This in the long run will reduce both sales and labor availability for Companies especially foreign brands like nespresso. The business culture in china is based on strong family ties and cultural network. Guanxi is a Chinese business practice of favoring a family and close friends prior to doing business. This could be unfavorable to foreign businesses like nespresso and other western companies. LEGAL FACTORS. Foreign trade laws, land ownership laws, patent and trademark laws, piracy laws, lobbying laws. According to reports, foreign firms cannot and do not acquire land as all land remains the property of the Chinese government. However the lease system provides foreign firms and corporation access to land for about a period of 50years after which the lease can be renewed. There was a case of McDonalds in Beijing who were forced out of their property by the government during the contract period (China unique, 2013). This spells an unstable working environment for nespresso. ECONOMIC FACTORS Economic factors include, Unemployment rate, exchange rate, inflation, interest rate, consumer discretionary income, labor cost. Unemployment: According to the ministry of human resources and social security of the PRC, there has been a significant decrease in unemployment rate in China from 4. 10 in the last quarter of 2013 to 4 percent in the second quarter of 2013 (Trading economics, 2014). This will increase salaries and wages due to scarcity of labor as only few of the population are unemployed. Similarly, Chinas inflation rate as reported by National Bureau of Statistics of China was at 2. 50 percent in January 2014 (Bloomberg business week Jan. 2014). This has caused a reduction in unemployment and an increase in wages. This might mean an increase in sales for western brands like nespresso and luxurious brands. According to ban and company luxury goods purchases has slowed down by 7percent as Chinese shoppers now do their luxury shopping abroad (Ban and company 2013). This might not be too good for foreign companies in china but it shows how passionate Chinese are for luxury brands. Chinas GDP were recorded at 7. 7 percent (9. 4 trillion USD) in the fourth quarter of 2013. (Bloomberg business week Jan. 2014) The above information shows that China’s economic environment would promote and facilitate business activities. (Trading economies, 2014). Lower unemployment rate implies high purchasing power of customers. Inflation will affect nespresso because suppliers will demand more. High interest rate means high return on investment. The higher consumer’s discretionary income, the higher their purchasing power especially for premium products like the nespresso brand. POLITICAL FACTORS. Factors present in the political environment include Political Stability, government involvement, trade barriers (tariff and non-tariff) Political stability: The three decades of reform in china has led to both a political and social landscape. (China daily Feb 2014). China has a unique form of political risk which is a constant battle between the central government and local government over applicable laws. For Nespesso, this stability and a clear understanding of local law would guarantee a stable business environment in the long run. Government involvement: The purpose of this is to protect domestic firms. (Protectionism). Government may impose barriers (tariff and non-tariff) on imports or foreign investment in order to protect domestic industries and to reduce competition. Although china has continuously opened its market for foreign investors, it has also place restriction on some foreign businesses in certain industries. For instance the restriction on American producers of autos, beef and steel into its market. (Bloomberg news April 2013) TECHNOLOGY. Technology when applied to work makes it easier, quicker and sometimes more efficient. The level of technology. Technology is inputs that improves an organization’s output. Technological factors includes machinery, communication, internet penetration, transport and logistics, social infrastructure. Internet penetration and logistics. See question 2 THE MICRO ENVIRONMENT INDUSTRY ANALYSIS PORTER’S FIVE FORCES. Local suppliers include; Yunnan Zheng coffee co ltd, Baoshan Yatong coffee commercial co. ltd, Dehong Hogu coffee co ltd, Yunnan Changshengda investment co. ltd, Kunming Qianxi industry and trade co ltd, Acme Fate international ltd (Alibaba, 2014). This shows that the supplier power is low because there are so many suppliers in the industry. Power of buyers (customers): With over 14million people in shanghai and other major cities of china and the tea drinking tradition of the Chinese people, there tend to be a high buyer power amongst customers. Also, the quest for luxurious band amongst Chinese consumers tend to influence buying power Competitors: The level of competition in china is high not just for coffee consumption but also for other hot drinks. In terms of luxurious coffee key players include Starbucks, costa, McDonalds, 85 degrees, pacific coffee etc. research from Mintel has shown that there has been an increase in the number of cafes from 15,898 to 31,283 between 2007 and 2012. (China briefing, 2013). Threat of new entrants: With the existence of so many players in the coffee industry it can be concluded that there is high threat of new entrants because it may seem that coffee business in China is attractive. Analysts say there will be a continuous increase in the consumption of instant coffee. (Euro monitor international). Industry rivalry: Competition is intense in the coffee industry in china as key player continue to compete in different ways. According to reports, there is a continuous fight for market share, who has more coffee shops etc. As Starbucks plans to have 1500 stores in china, costa coffee has stated their intention to increase its number to 2500 by 2018. Nestle and Starbucks has been competing for dominance of china’s coffee market for the last decade. While nestle has focused on being a ubiquitous brand, Starbucks has targeted the upper middle class. (Context china) QUESTION TWO According to reports, China has 618million internet users. 80percent of this number are mobile internet users. (ZDnet, 2014). The outbreak of mobile internet users drove the number from 500million as at December 2013. With this number of internet users, a firm would have no problem carrying out online sales, advertising, or communicating with its customers. A report by adage confirms that Taoboa and Tmall, two of china’s largest e-commerce company broke their last year’s sales record via the internet. Therefore many firms are capitalizing on the power of the internet by doing series of online promotion. (Adage, 2013) Online retail sale according to Bloomberg, went up by 2percent last year (adage, 2013). The surging internet purchase indicates that Chinese consumers are moving away from bricks and mortar outlets for their shopping. Opportunities of online CRM and sales include; Wider reach. Using the internet, nespresso can keep up with a large number of its customers on a daily or weekly bases. Advertising. Nespresso can also use the internet to advertise its product to millions of customers at the same time. This could be cheaper to operate too. Segmenting purposes. The record of customers and their previous purchase can help nespresso in automatically segmenting it customers based on purchase history Feedback and adjustment. Customer feedbacks is very important as these information can be used in making services or products better. Despite the attractive and promising nature of using the internet, investors and firms should also consider the drawbacks of using the internet for sales and communication. The Chinese government recently just imposed a new law regarding e-Commerce in China. The law stipulates that real names registration of sellers on third party platforms, strict seven days return policy, and also online payment market place must safeguard user’s privacy. (Pac net services, 2014) Another report says the government is imposing a law where all consumer to consumer online trading would have to register for a business license and  also pay taxes (China daily, 2014) Legal system. There are different legal restriction and regulation from government and regulatory bodies. Payment environment: the cash payment culture of the Chinese creates difficulties for online shopping. International credit cards are not accepted in most online shops. There is unavailability of credit card payment in most transactional websites. The online payment system in china is still at an infant stage. Logistics network environment: there is a restriction on foreign investment of logistics companies. Limited choices of delivery therefore, much more time is spent on delivery (jitm, 2007). QUESTION THREE Despite the large number of internet users I personally would recommend that nespresso adopt another marketing strategy as it will be very harmful to assume that the nespresso club would work in the Chinese market. From careful observation of the forces at work in the Chinese market environment, I can say that there is high level of government protectionism and regulation on internet businesses (Ecommerce) that tends to favor Chinese owned firms and businesses. Report has it that not only were a lot of websites blocked in china, there were also a Chinese replacement. Sites blocked include Facebook, yahoo, google, twitter, YouTube etc. according to report, the British newspaper The Guardian along with The New York times and Bloomberg news has been blocked in china for over a year. Motives for this act remains unknown (Taipei Times, 2014). Nespresso’s use of the internet is limited as not so much can be achieved due to interference by the government therefore using the internet could hinder performance as there is too much interference from the government. Nespresso should adapt its marketing mix to overcome the current situation of internet insecurity so as to reduce reliance on the internet. Though the internet can be used to position the nespresso brand image in the minds of the consumers for sales, or advertising or customer relationship but it won’t be wise business decision to apply the nespresso club concept in China because the government can decide blacklist them just like the case of Facebook. Nespresso should create more awareness about its brand to the Chinese public especially the less educated ones explaining the difference between house coffee and the nespresso brand Lastly, since there is already a tea drinking tradition amongst the Chinese population, nespresso should consider a local adaptation which involves offering other kinds of hot drinks so as to have a variety of products for it ever growing tea drinking customers.

The Dalit Womens Movement In India

The Dalit Womens Movement In India This paper proposes to look at dalit womens movement (DWM) in India. The dalit womens movement should be analyzed in a relational framework for which we will have to look at the specific history and nature of the Indian nation-state. The other two major movements which have a bearing on DWM are the dalit movement and the womens movement in India. This paper focuses on the DWM particularly the National Federation of dalit women (NFDW). There are a host of regional, state level and national level movements led and participated by dalit women, it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss all these, so I undertake a study of the NFDW, its politics, strategy, ideology, scope and the theoretical perspectives through which it has been analysed. The NFDW is chronologically a post 1980s phenomena and has been active in a transnational arena with its particular presence in Durban 2001, it has been analysed by social scientists in a transnational framework. I have not overlooked the transnational significance of the movement, but, looked at it in a historical context of Indias history and modernity, the place of dalit women and men within this history and how has the history been challenged by dalit women. The main argument put forward by dalit feminists is that dalit women are a different category in their own right and they should not be subsumed within the category of dalits or women as a whole. Dalit feminists have asked both the dalit movements and womens movements in India for an internal critique because both these movements have neither been able to represent dalit women nor paid attention to their specific structural, social and cultural location within Indian society. Indian society is ridden with multiple and overlapping inequalities which affect women in general and dalit women in particular, in different ways. Dalit feminists have also argued for an analysis of patriarchy within dalit communities because of external and internal factors. Dalit women justify the case for talking differently on the basis of external factors (non-dalit forces homogenizing the issue of dalit women) and internal factors (the patriarchal domination within the dalits). (Guru: 1995:2548) The dalit womens movement has a crucial role to play in the analysis of dalit feminist approach because as Chaudhuri points out it is almost impossible to separate the history of action from the history of ideas. In other words the conceptual debates themselves embodied the history of doing, and vice versa. (Chaudhuri: 2004: xi-xii) therefore what constitutes conceptual history, arises in the context of history of doing (Chaudhuri: 2004: xii) The first part explores the historicity of womans question in India, dalit womens participation in early anti-caste movements is established now but they do not figure in the womens movement led by the AIWC as the womens movement started with a group of bourgeois women who believed in homogeneous womanhood. The second part looks at the question of difference and the articulation of this difference by dalit women through what Rege has called the dalit feminist standpoint (DFS), and the further debate around the DFS. The third part looks at the NFDW in particular. The fourth part tries to locate the DWM in different theoretical frameworks which have been put forward to explain the movement locating it in the present national and international scenario. The questions this paper will explore are: Why is it important to see the dalit womens movement as separate from the Indian womens movement and dalit movement in general? What are the main features of dalit womens movement, particularly the NFDW? How the revolving and overlapping axis of caste, class and gender have affected dalit women in particular? The related concepts are: Patriarchy Patriarchy is defined as Literally, rule of the father the term was originally used to describe social systems based on authority of male heads of household. (A dictionary of sociology 2009/1994:551) The nature of control and subjugation of women varies from one society to the other as it differs due to the differences in class, caste, religion, region, ethnicity and the socio-cultural practices. Thus in the context of India, brahmanical patriarchy, tribal patriarchy and dalit patriarchy are different from each other. Patriarchy within a particular caste or class also differs in terms of their religious and regional variations. (Ray: 2006) Mary E. John argues that there are not separate, multiple patriarchies but multiple patriarchies, the products of social discrimination along class, caste and communal lines, are much more shared and overlapping than diverseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the growing disparitiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦would tell a different story, one of unequal patriarchies and disparate genders.(John:2004: 66). Gender According to Ann Oakley sex is a biological term: gender a psychological and cultural one further she says if the proper terms for sex are male and female, the corresponding terms for gender are masculine and feminine; these latter may be quite independent of (biological) sex. (Oakley: 1972:159) Dalit Romila Thapar traces the roots of Dalit in Pali literature in which Dalit means the oppressed. (Quoted in Guru and Geetha: 2000) Dalit is not a caste; it is a constructed identityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Dalit (oppressed or broken) is not a new word. Apparently, it was used in the 1930s as a Hindi and Marathi translation of depressed classes, a term the British used for what are now called the scheduled castesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The word was also used by B R Ambedkar in his Marathi speeches. The Dalit Panthers revived the term in their 1973 manifestoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Bharati: 2002) However there is a huge and raging debate over the word Dalit among intellectuals. The issues of terminology are complex and cannot be handled in this space, the study proposes to use dalits for the communities also at times called ex-untouchables, ati-shudras, untouchables, scheduled castes, low castes, harijans etc. Dalit women It has been pointed by dalit activists and intellectuals that dalit women suffer the triple burden of caste, class, and gender (Rao:2006), (Rege:1998), (Dietrich:2006), (Omvedt: 2004),(Malik:1999) they have been called the dalits of the dalits , the downtrodden amongst the downtrodden and the the slaves of the slaves.( Manorama quoted in Hardtmann: 2009:217) However such a construction has been challenged by Shirman as fetishising of dalit womens suffering which tend to reify the living social relationships that constitute dalit womens lives, and to locate dalit women as objects of pity. (Shirman: 2004) Social movement A social movement can be thought of as an informal set of individuals and/ or groups that are involved in confliction relations with clearly identified opponents; are linked by dense informal networks; [and] share a distinct collective identity (della Porta Diani, 2006, p. 20). (Christiansen:2011:4) Feminism Kumari Jayawardena defines feminism as embracing movements for equality within the current system and significant struggles that have attempted to change the system. She asserts that these movements arose in the context of i) the formulation and consolidation of national identities which modernized anti-imperialist movements during the independence struggle and ii) the remaking of pre-capitalist religion and feudal structures in attempt to modernize third world societies (Jayawardena, 1986: 2) ( Quoted in Chaudhuri, 2004: xvi). Nation-State Nation, it is clear, is not the same as state. The latter refers to an independent and autonomous political structure over a specific territory, with a comprehensive legal system and a sufficient concentration of power to maintain law and order. State, in other words, is primarily a political-legal concept, whereas nation is primarily psycho-cultural. Nation and state may exist independently of one another: a nation may exist without a state; a state may exist without a nation. When the two coincide, when the boundaries of the state are approximately coterminous with those of the nation, the result is a nation-state. A nation-state, in other words, is a nation that possesses political sovereignty. It is socially cohesive as well as politically organized and independent. (Enloe and Rejai: 1969:143) The space of dalit women in the womens movement and the dalit movement in India. Chaudhuri has observed that the early womens movement comprised of the women from upper caste and class strata who distanced themselves from party politics and confrontational mode of assertion. The theme of woman as an individual in her own right did not crop up till very late. The theme that emerges is the naturally non-antagonistic relationship of the sexes in India as compared to the westà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Chaudhuri: 2004:119) Chaudhuri discusses that the All India Womens Congress (AIWC) were in favour of joint electorates and rejected the communal award, women the leading members continued to argue, were all sisters under the sari and the institutions and ideals that governed their lives were similar. (Chaudhuri: 2004:130) Chaudhuri also observes the propensity of gender issues to be dispensable while larger political battles are being fought has been a constant of sorts in the history of modern India. (Chaudhuri: 2011: xv) Throughout the nineteenth century different versions of female emancipation came to be tied to the idea of national liberation and regeneration. The early colonial constellation of the arya woman is a sternly elitist concept in class and caste terms, and finds its nationalist shape in social and political thought, literature and a dominant historiographic model of Indiaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the recovery of tradition throughout the proto-nationalist and nationalist period was the recovery of the traditional womanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the vedic woman, both in her own time, and after her appropriation by upper castes and classes in the nineteenth century, is built upon the labour of lower social groups and is also a mark of distinction from them.(Sangari and Vaid: 1989:10) Following these historical developments there has been an ambivalence in india towards feminism, Chaudhuri argues that we cannot exclude women who were pushing feminist agendas without calling them feminists because we cannot impose current notions of feminism on the past thereby assuming an ideal notion of the correct kind of feminism. (Chaudhuri: 2004: xvi-xvii) Another question that Chaudhuri points out is the westernnes of feminism and its subsequent perception by feminists in India. She claims that there is no turning away from the westà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦questions regarding the westerness of feminism has been a constant theme. In a hierarchical society often gender oppression is linked with oppressions based on caste, class, community, tribe and religion, and in such multiple patriarchies men as the principal oppressors is not easily accepted (Chaudhuri, 2004: xxii-xxiii). Manuela Ciotti in a field study done with BSP and Hindu right women activists in UP has drawn attention to the role played by womens husbands or other male family members, who are often not only responsible for womens release into public life, but also act as a source of advice, experience, encouragement and financial support for their political activities. (Ciotti: 2007) The history to which the dalit womens movement traces itself is of Ambedkar and Phule (both men) whose approach however was (unlike that of the early Indian womens movement) confrontationalist as well as pronouncedly antagonist to brahmanic patriarchy. To Phule and Ambedkar, gender issues were not dispensable. This history also brings to light the fact that dalit women were not historically absent from movements but their history has been neglected until recently. They worked side by side dalit men but they have started to organize separately from dalit men with different movements only post the 1970s. Ambedkar not only spoke for and agitated for the rights of Dalits but also Dalit women. He argued that practices of sati, enforced widowhood and child marriage come to be prescribed by Brahmanism in order to regulate and control any transgression of boundaries, i.e., to say he underlines the fact that the caste system can be maintained only through the controls on womens sexuality and in this sense women are the gateways to the caste system [Ambedkar 1992:90] (Rege: 1998) Meenakshi Moon and Urmila Pawar have recorded the participation of dalit women in the early 20th century movements against caste exclusion and oppression, in the following decades womens activities developed from mere participation as beneficiaries or as an audience, to the shouldering of significant responsibility in various fields of activity in the Ambedkar movement. (Moon and Pawar: 2003:49) Moon and Pawars research has thrown light on the unknown facts of the dalit womens participation in the early anti-caste movements, Dr. Ambedkar saw to it that womens conferences were held simultaneously with those of men. By 1930 women had become so conscious that they started conducting their own meetings and conferences independently. (Moon and Pawar: 2003:50) In the Mahad satyagraha of 1927 women not only participated in the procession with Dr. Ambedkar but also participated in the deliberations of the subject committee meetings in passing resolutions about the claim for equal human rights. (Moon and Pawar: 2003:50) Their research also reveals the experiences they (dalit women) had in the field as well as in the family as mother, wife, daughter; what was the effect on their life of Ambedkars movement and speechesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Moon and Pawar: 2003:53) Even the women who were illiterate subscribed to Ambedkars journals to keep the publications alive. They paid four annas to eight annas when their daily wages were hardly a rupee daily. Some women courted arrest with the men in the satayagrahas. Some had to face beatings from their husbands for participating in the movement. At such times they took their infant babies to jail, some carried all their belongings, even chickens. Taking in consideration the extremely backward social atmosphere the achievements of these women were most commendable. (Moon and Pawar: 2003:54-55) The analyses of dalit womens presence in anti caste struggle has brought out the sharp contrast between their participation in movements and their visibility as leaders and decision makers in political parties or dalit movement itself. Dalit women do not play any important role in the political leadership of maharastra (Zelliot:2006:209) Vimal Thorat laments that Dalit identity politics articulates caste identity sharply but resists, deliberately, understanding and articulating the gender dimensions of caste itself (that sees all women not just Dalit women) in a certain lightà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The Dalit movement has thrown up so many women but articulate women are not invited by Dalit forums, especially the political parties. (Thorat: 2001) The question she asks is Forty years after the Dalit movement, where is the womens share? (Hamari bhagyadari kahan hai?) (Thorat: 2001) Ruth Manorama is of the view that dalit women have to challenge dalit men to reah the leading posts within their own movement. She explains that dalit men have been discriminated throughout their lives by high caste men as well as high caste women. The dalit men now are scared of dalit women and think that they are the same as the high caste women. Now when they have finally grasped the leadership positions they will not part from them. You have to understand them. (Hardtmann: 2009:219) Dietrich argues that while womens movements downplay the caste factor and emphasize unity among women as victims of violence, dalit movements see such violence only from a caste angle and subsume the dalit women within dalits in general.( Dietrich:2006:57) Many Dalit intellectuals deny the persistence of brahmanic patriarchy among the dalits, Kancha Ilaiah admits that patriarchy exists among the dalits, but he compares it to Brahmin patriarchy and contends that it is less oppressive the man woman relations among the dalitBahujan are far more democratic. (Ilaiah: 2006:88) Dalit womens assertion of difference Gopal Guru in dalit women talk differently has posed faith in the new politics of difference that the dalit women have expressed through the formation of the National Federation of Dalit Women (NFDW). Guru brings out the facts that such difference is necessary if dalit women want to fight patriarchy which is external and internal. Other factors that he points out are caste factor does not get adequate recognition in the analysis done by non-dalit, middle-class, urbanised women activists. (Guru: 1995:2548) And the claim for womens solidarity at both national and global levels subsumes contradictions that exist between high caste and dalit women. (Guru: 1995:2548) Rege also points to the trend of the left party-based womens organizations collapsing caste into class, and the autonomous womens groups collapsing caste into sisterhood, both leaving Brahmanism unchallenged. (Rege: 1998) The social and material conditions of dalit women are different and they cannot uncritically ally themselves with larger feminist politics because of the same, so feminists like Rege have called it the dalit feminist standpoint (DFS). (Rege: 1998) The DFS according to Rege analyses what divides women, what unites them but does not unite them easily. As a standpoint located in the material practices of dalit womens lives it rejects a dichotomisation of the material and cultural which equates the material to environmental degradation and brahmanism to the cultural. Brahmanical patriarchies and caste-specific patriarchies are material in their determination of the access to resources, the division of labour the sexual division of labour and division of sexual labour. (Rege: 2000) Criticizing Rege, Chaya Datar argues that Rege has ignored ecofeminism which actually talks about the position of dalit women in society and the exploitation of women as well as the environment and natural degradation. In Datars view the dalit womens movement may not be part of narrow identity politics, insofar as it does not talk of the materiality of the majority of dalit, marginalised women who lose their livelihoods because of environmental degradation but focuses its struggle mainly against brahminical symbols, it cannot aspire to revisioning of society. It cannot become more emancipatory than the present womens movement. (Datar: 1999) According to Anupama Rao dalitbahujan feminists have gone further than merely arguing that Indian feminism is incomplete and exclusive. Rather, they are suggesting that we rethink the genealogy of Indian feminism in order to engage meaningfully with dalit womens difference from the ideal subjects of feminist politics. (Rao: 2006:2-3) Bela Malik argues that a purely dalit or a purely feminist movement cannot adequately help dalit women. (Malik: 1999) she further states that those who have been actively involved with organizing women encounter difficulties that are nowhere addressed in a theoretical literature whose foundational principles are derived from a smattering of normative theories of rights, liberal political theory, an ill-formulated left politics and more recently, occasionally, even a well-intentioned doctrine of entitlements. Kannabiran and Kannabiran(1991) have pointed to how the deadlock between kshatriya and dalit men caused by dalit agricultural labourer women dressing well could be solved only by a decision taken by men of both the communities. It was decided that women of either community would not be allowed to step into each others locations. The sexual assault on dalit women has been used as a common practice for under-mining the manhood of the caste. Some dalit male activists did argue that in passing derogatory remarks about upper caste girls (in incidents such as Chanduru) dalit men were only getting their own back. The emancipatory agenda of the dalit and womens movements will have to be sensitive to these issues and underline the complex interphase between caste and gender as structuring hierarchies in society. (Rege: 1998) The notion of the dalit women as more free and mobile has been taken up by feminists, the arguments have been that although dalit women are vocal and fight their husbands back, they are not under the ideology of husband worship but they face collective threat of physical harm from upper caste forces all the time. (Dietrich: 2006:58), also (Rege: 1998). Kumkum Sangari opines that patriarchies function and persist not only because they are embedded in the social stratification, division of labour, political structure, cultural practices but also because of consent by women. (Sangari: 1996:17) T.P-Vetschera in his study of Dalit women in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra points out to the element of consent by quoting the Dalit women themselves our men dont treat us as badly as animals, this means that they are good'. Women feel that suffering (is) an essential part of a womans life and nothing could be done about it. (P-Vetschera: 1996:246) T.P-Vetscheras study points out that the Mahars have experienced social mobility and in the region caste repression is not so bad. However the lives of Mahar women are full of daily struggles with burgeoning amount of work within and outside home. Their husbands dont help them and they have to cope with clichà ©s which configure them as lazy and having loose morals. (P-Vetschera: 1996:238) They are frequent victims of violence at the hands of their husbands. Some of them are victims of rape and sexual exploitation by high caste men. (P-Vetschera: 1996:239) Sanskritisation or reference group behavior has reined havoc on the freedom and position earlier enjoyed by dalit women in dalit community. (P-Vetschera: 1996:257). A dangerous mixture of tradition and modernity combines not to stop or minimize the exploitation of dalit women but only gives it a new avatar. The National Federation of dalit women (NFDW) Tracing the issues at stake in the post Mandal-Masjid phase of the womens movement, Rege has argued that the assertion of dalit womens voices in the 1990s brings up significant issues for the revisioning of feminist politics. (Rege: 1998). The revival of the womens movement in india came with the new womens movement in the 1970s.Dalit womens activists however, see this movement as a continuation of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the Hindu caste reform tradition.(Hardtmann: 2009:215) They consider the feminist theory developed by non-dalit women as unauthentic since it does not capture their reality. This comprehension gets clearly reflected in the 12- point agenda adopted by the NFDW and in several papers presented by the dalit women at the Maharashtra Dalit Womens Conference held in Pune in May 1995. Dalit women define the concept of dalit strictly in caste terms, refuting the claim of upper caste women to dalithood. Dalit women activists quote Phule and Ambedkar to invalidate the attempt to a non-dalit woman to don dalit identity. (Guru: 1995:2549) In the second half of the 1980s, dalit women came to express a need for a separate platform within the broader womens movement. In the 1987 the first dalit womens national meeting, dalit womens struggles and aspirations, was held in Bangalore. About 200 women from the south of India, but also from Delhi, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and west Bengal are said to have attended. This was the beginning of a national network of dalit women which on the 11 august 1995 formed the NFDW. (Guru: 1995:2548-9) (Hardtmann: 2009:215) Three years later some women from NFDW took part in the formation of the national campaign on dalit human rights (NCDHR). (Hardtmann: 2009:216) It is important to note, however, that even if they have organized separately from dalit men, they tried to work in collaboration with them in the NCDHR. NCDHR was officially launched on World Human Rights Day, 10 December 1998; it links dozens of formerly isolated Dalit civil society organizations in fourteen Indian states. (Bob: 2007:179) The NFDW was instrumental in organizing dalit women for the world conference against racism held in Durban in 2001. Dalit activists argued that caste oppression was like race oppression because both were discriminations based on work and descent. This has been a matter of debate in India as well as globally now and the NFDW supported this claim. The World Conference against Racism held at Durban in 2001 and the process that led to the WCAR in India witnessed the freeing of caste from the confines of India into a larger international arena that held out greater possibilities for public debate, alliance building and more powerful resistance. (Kannabiran: 2006) This meant that not only did the dalit movement and questions related to SC become known internationally, but international focus, to a large extent, came to be placed on the situation of SC women. (Hardtmann: 2009:215) The manifesto of NFDW reads: NFDW endeavours to seek and build alliances with all other progressive and democratic movements and forces, in particular the womens movement and the wider Dalit movement at the national level. It thus aspires in a significant way to widen the democratic spaces while at the same time to create and preserve its identity and specificity. This framework will enable the Dalit womens movement to seek the roots of its oppression, the diversities, the nature of changes, if any, in specific regions and historical contexts and in particular, perceive the varied levels of consciousness that exist within it. Source, (Kannabiran: 2006) In the context of the caste and race debate The NFDW focused on the specific interpretation of civil and political rights, the recognition of productive contribution to society in terms of equality, dignity, fair wages and popular perception, the guarantee of security of person and freedom from the threat of sexual and physical assault, right to freedom of religion in a context where conversion for a better life resulted in denial of protections and the right to leadership a claim pitted against non-dalit men, dalit men and non dalit women. (Kannabiran: 2006) Drawing on the definition of racial discrimination in Article 1 of the CERD, the NFDW asserted in the Durban process that discrimination based on caste is indeed a specific form of racism, intertwined with gender since Dalit women face targeted violence from state actors and powerful members of dominant castes and community especially in the case of rape, mutilation and death; they face discrimination in the payment of unequal wages and gender violence at the workplace that includes fields [as agricultural labourers], on the streets [as manual scavengers and garbage pickers], in homes [as domestic workers], and through religious customà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦' (Kannabiran: 2006) The charter of rights of dalit women, formulated in 1999, and christened the Delhi Declaration sets out the guiding principles of dalit womens rights. It declares that dalits are one of the indigenous peoples of India, who as a people are sovereign, with a distinct identity, history, culture and religionSignificantly, dalit women in this charter declared solidarity in the common cause of womens rights in India and the world at large for the establishment of gender partnership in an egalitarian society. (Kannabiran: 2006) Theoretical approaches It is difficult to explain the dalit womens movement with the help of any one of the given theoretical perspectives, because of the particular context in which DWM is located and the specific historical trajectory it has followed; feminist movements in general have been theorized as new social movements (NSM), however the NSM perspective cannot explain DWM until some context based facts are taken in account. The DWM as separate from the dalit movement and the NFDW in particular is chronologically a new phenomena, the movement has been analysed in relation to the current world order. The womens movement, the dalit movement, the dalit womens movement and Feminism in India has to be situated within the particular history of colonialism, nationalism, modernity, nation-state, and presently the global world order with global institutions like the IMF, the World Bank and the United Nations. Feminism in India cannot be isolated from the broader framework of an unequal international world. (Chaudhuri: 2004: xv) Chaudhuri has argued that we should look at the Indian nation-states entry in modernity to understand the womens question in India. Indias entrance to modernity was facilitated by the colonial state and the very construction of modern bourgeois domesticity itself can be discerned in the nineteenth century social reform movement. (Chaudhuri: 2011: x) The social reform movement focused on the high caste-class women as subjects and as well as symbols for Indian tradition has been made clear by Vaid and Sangari (1989). In the context of DWM it becomes crucial to understand gender as a relational term (John 2004) (Hardtmann 2009). Johns question is that how then, should one look at the gendered relations between men and women from the exploited sections of societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Hardtmann: 2009:209) John has commented that the stereotype of associating women with the inside private sphere and men as a general category with the outside world of economic and political powerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is very misleading (Hardtmann: 2009:209) because such power is in fact in the hands of a very few men, who are upper caste and Hindu, and middle or upper class, and who may constitute no more than 10 percent of the male population. (John 2004b:253) (Hardtmann: 2009:209) Arguing in the vein of John, Hartmann argues that the world bank, the Indian state, and international corporations agree that one solution to the economic problems of SCs in the Indian society is that poor women enter the private spheres as entrepreneurs. Her question is why poor women and poor men. The implicit assumption of these institutions is that dalit men are economically irresponsible in relation to their families. They are deprived of their so called male responsibility, and as a result they are devoid of constructing their masculinity associated with respect. Women are supported to enter the economic sphere, but when they on the other hand reach an economic position, like Mayawati, they are pictured as immoral and deprived of constructing a so-called femininity, valued and respected in Indian society. (Hardtmann: 2009:225) To invoke Johns pithy description, the thrifty and diligent women are pitted solely against their unruly men. (Chaudhuri: 2011: xxxix) Who are seen as bad subjects of modernity. (Chaudhuri: 2011: xxxix) Hartdmann suggests that to dalit men and women, oppression is not a question of ascribed gender identities in a heteronormative society, rather dalit men and women are not ascribed gender identities, but on the opposite prevented from constructing gender identities related to a neoliberal economic order in the Indian society, where traditional gender roles are clearly defined. (Hardtmann: 2009:225) The DWM traces its origins and ideology to Ambedkar. Ambedkars faith lay in the state as a redeemer of the injustices of the Indian societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Rao: 2003:24)

Textile Dyes Biosorption Using Dead Fungal Biomass Environmental Sciences Essay

Textile Dyes Biosorption Using Dead Fungal Biomass Environmental Sciences Essay Over the past three decades or so the discovery and further development of biosorption phenomena has gained momentum and has transformed the methods by the means of which waste water effluent is treated to remove pollutants and recover valuable resources present in these aqueous systems like dyes. Biosorption is becoming a promising alternative to replace or supplement the present dye removal processes from textile industries effluent. This technology has drawn the attention of industries as it is economically viable and environmentally friendly. The status of scientific development of a technology can be reflected through analyses of the literatures pertaining to it, in this review, we qualitatively examine almost all aspects of biosorption research through research articles and other review papers. We have basically focused on biosorption of textile dyes using dead fungal biomass obtained from autoclaved or inactivated Aspergillus Niger. Materials used, methodologies used and data obtained has been assimilated from literature cited below. Finally, we summarized the important considerations of the current research on biosorption, the results and conclusions obtained from the data, as well as the suggestions and our thoughts and ideas for its future directions. INTRODUCTION Rapid industrialization and urbanization all over the globe has resulted in the generation of large quantities of aqueous effluents, many of which contain high levels of toxic pollutants. Various physical, chemical and biological processes are being employed to remove pollutants from industrial wastewaters before discharge into the environment as in the case of treatment of adsorptive pollutants like heavy metals and ionic dyes, however, most of the conventional treatment processes, especially chemical precipitation, coagulation, activated carbons and the use of ion-exchange resins become less effective and more expensive when the adsorbates are in a low concentration range and their high cost and low efficiency and lack of practicality have limited their commercial use in the field . Since any type of solid material has the capacity to absorb pollutants to some degree, a number of industrial inorganic wastes, such as ash, or natural inorganic materials like clay, synthetic materials , as well as, living or nonliving biomass/biomaterials, have been investigated as cheap adsorbents capable of replacing the well-known, but more expressive ones as their cost is low and efficiency is higher and the biosorbants can be regenerated, and the possibility of dye recovery following adsorption biomass-based adsorbents or biosorbents as they are commonly called, are the most attractive alternatives to physical and chemical processes. The use of biosorbents for the removal of toxic pollutants or for the recovery of valuable resources from aqueous waste waters is one of the most recent developments in environmental or bioresource technology. Biosorption of dyes has become a popular environmentally driven research topic, and is one of the most sought after processes in the modern day where bioremediation is key in preserving the environment for future generations. Bohumil Volesky, a pioneer in the field, defined biosorption as the property of certain biomolecules (or types of b iomass) to bind and concentrate selected ions or other molecules from aqueous solutions. Biosorption by dead biomass (or by some molecules and/or their active groups) is passive and occurs primarily due to the affinity between the biosorbent and adsorbate. Types of Biomass or Biomaterials: Pollutants like metals and dyes can be removed by adsorption by living microorganisms, but can also be removed by dead biomass. Studies on practicality in the field for large-scale applications have demonstrated that biosorptive processes using dead biomass is much more viable option than the processes that use living biomass, since the latter require a nutrient supply and complicated bioreactor systems. Plus the use of dead biomass eliminates the maintenance of a healthy microbial population, and the other environmental factors like temperature and pH of the solution being treated. Dye recovery is also limited in living cells since these may be bound intracellularly. Therefore keeping these factors in mind, attention has been focused on the use of dead biomass as biosorbents. As mentioned above, dead biomass has advantages over living microorganisms. A hybrid process can also be employed which uses both dead and living biomass so as to increase the efficiency of biosorption. However, we have chosen to focus on single biosorption processes in this review and to avoid discussion of hybrid processes combined with biosorption. The first major challenge faced is to select the most promising types of biomass from an extremely large pool of readily available and inexpensive biomaterials. To streamline this when choosing biomass, for on field or industrial uses, the main factor to be taken into account is its availability and cheapness. Therefore keeping these factors in mind, native biomass can come from (i) industrial wastes free of charge; (ii) organisms easily obtainable in large amounts in nature; and (iii) organisms that can be grown quickly and which can be cultivated easily. A broad range of biomass types have been tested for their biosorptive capacities under various conditions at this point in time, but there are no limits to exploration of new biomass types having low cost and high efficiency. Biosorptive capacities of vari ous biomass types have been quantitatively compared in many review papers. Biosorbents primarily fall into the following categories: bacteria, fungi, algae, industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, natural residues, and other biomaterials. Quantitative comparison of the hundreds of biosorbents reported thus far is not possible therefore data from various papers that have done these types of comparisons of biosorptive capacities of various biosorbents for various pollutants were used. It should be noted that the biosorptive capacity of a certain type of biosorbent depends on its pretreatment methods, as well as, on experimental conditions like pH and temperature. When comparing biosorptive capacities of biosorbents we consider it for a target pollutant, therefore, the experimental data should be carefully considered in light of these factors. After choosing a form of cheap and abundant biomass, the biosorbent capability for removing a target pollutant can be derived through simple che mical and/or physical method(s). New biosorbents can be manipulated for better efficiency and for multiple reuses to increase their economic attractiveness, compared with conventional adsorbents like ion-exchange resins or activated carbons. Category Examples Bacteria Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillussp. Corynebacteriumsp.,etc) gram-negative bacteria(Es-cherichia sp., Pseudomonas sp)cyanobacteria. Algae Micro-algae (Clorella sp., Chlamydomonas sp., etc) macro-algae (green seaweed (Enteromorpha sp.) brown seaweed (Sargassum sp.)and red seaweed ) Industrial Wastes Fermentation wastes, food/beverage wastes, activated sludges, anaerobic sludges, etc. Fungi Molds (Aspergillus sp., Rhizopus sp. Etc.) mushrooms (Agaricus sp., Trichaptum sp. Etc.)And Yeast. Agricultural Wastes Fruit/vegetable wastes, rice straws, wheat bran, soybean hulls, etc. Natural residues Plant residues, sawdust, tree barks, weeds, etc. Others Chitosan-driven materials, cellulose-driven materials,etc. Table 1: Different type of biosorbents. Mechanisms of Pollutants Removal by Biosorbents: There are many types of biosorbents derived from bacteria, fungi, yeasts, and algae (Table 1). The complex structure of these implies that there are many ways, by which these biosorbents remove various pollutants, but these are yet to be fully understood. Thus, there are many chemical/functional groups that can attract and sequester pollutants, depending on the choice of biosorbent. These can consist of amide, amine, carbonyl, carboxyl, hydroxyl, imine, imidazole, sulfonate, sulfhydryl, thioether, phenolic, phosphate, and phosphodiester groups. However, the presence of some functional groups does not guarantee successful biosorption of pollutants, as steric, conformational, or other barriers may also be present. The importance of any given group for biosorption of a certain pollutant by a certain biomass depends on various factors, including the number of reactive sites in the biosorbent, accessibility of the sites, chemical state of t he sites (i.e. availability), and affinity between the sites and the particular pollutant of interest (i.e. binding strength). The understanding of the mechanisms by which biosorbents remove pollutants is very important for the development of biosorption processes for the concentration, removal, and recovery of the pollutants from aqueous solutions, also on the basis of these mechanisms modifications can be made on the biomass so as to increase the adsorption-desorption capacity of it. When the chemical or physiological reactions occurring during biosorption are known, the rate, quantity, and specificity of the pollutant uptake can be manipulated through the specification and control of process parameters. Biosorption of metals or dyes occurs mainly through interactions such as ion exchange, complexation, and adsorption by physical forces, precipitation and entrapment in inner spaces. Schematic diagram for processing different Biosorption mechanisms types of native biomass into biosorbents. Recovery and Regeneration: One of the important reasons why biosorption is favoured over conventional processes is due to the recovery of pollutant from the biosorbent and simultaneous regeneration of the biosorbent for reuse which makes it economically viable for industries. In fact, the usefulness of a specific biomass as a biosorbent depends not only on its biosorptive capacity, but also on the ease of its regeneration and reuse. However, most researchers have tended to focus only on the biosorptive capacity of biosorbent tested, without consideration of the regeneration required for industrial applications. The adsorbate bound onto the surface of a biosorbent through metabolism-independent biosorption may be easily desorbed by simple non-destructive physical/chemical methods using chemical eluants, but intracellularly bound adsorbate through metabolism-dependent bioaccumulation can be only released by destructive methods like incineration or dissolution into strong acids or alkal is. If cheap biomass is used as a biosorbent for recovering a certain pollutant, then destructive recovery would be economically feasible. However, most attention to date has focused on non-destructive desorption from the loaded biosorbent. For this reason, the choice between living or dead biomass systems is important because of the implication for recovery. In many cases, dilute mineral acids or alkalis allow efficient desorption from the biosorbent, but they also cause serious structural damage to the biosorbent itself, resulting in a drop in the biosorptive capacity of the biosorbent following regeneration. Organic solvents such as ethanol can be also used for desorbing organic pollutants such as dyes from the biosorbent. Sometimes heating or microwaving can aid desorption with an eluant or mixture solution. As well, as previously mentioned, the solution pH will have a strong influence on biosorption of a target pollutant; thus, simple manipulation of the pH of the desorbing sol ution should theoretically be a good method for regeneration of the biosorbent and recovery of the pollutant. FUNDAMENTAL REVIEW How is the textile effluents treated today? It is not easy to treat the effluents by the conventional biological and physico-chemical processes, e.g. light, heat, wash and oxidizing agents, used in regular treatment plants. That is because of the complexicity of the dyes aromatic molecular structures. Adsorption is the most helpful physical process in the treating these dye waste waters. Today activated carbon is normally used for adsorption in many treatment plants. But the producing costs for activated carbon is very high, there is a need of an alternative material that is more cost capable. A low costs adsorbent is defined as one which is rich in nature or one that is produces as a byproduct in another industry. There have been studies on lots of different natural materials as adsorbents in treating textile effluents, for example saw dust and agricultural wastes like wheat straw and corn cob. Now biosorption is investigated as a method to absorb the effluents and different organisms treating different kinds of dyes are test ed. Synthetic dyes are widely used in textile industries. As a result, about 10-20% of the dyes are lost during the built-up and dyeing process, producing large amounts of dye-containing wastewater. Mostly dyes used are azo, anthraquinone and triphenylmethane dyes, classes is based on its chromophore .The white rot fungi are known to be very efficient for azo dye decolorization as various Aspergillus species, have been reported to decolorize various dyes. Aspergillus niger The dye solution will be treated with inactivated Aspergillus niger. A. niger is a fungi which has already been used industrially in producing citric acid. Citric acid used to be produced by extraction from lemons and other citrus fruits, but today microbial fermentation is a broadly spread technique and nearly all citric acid is produced this way. In these fermentation industries A. niger also comes out as a waste product which makes it suitable for investigations of the biosorption ability. A. niger is a dark colored fungi (see Figure a and b) that could be seen at moldering food and is then called black mold. It is mostly fruits and vegetables that are affected by the mold, for example grape fruits, onions and peanuts. One should not forget when dealing with the fungi that it could cause fungus diseases on both humans and animals. Aspergillus niger is a common saprophytic fungus in terrestrial environments. If the cells of the fungi are active they are easily affected by toxic com pounds and chemicals in the waste water and they may then pollute the environment by releasing toxins or propagules. Figure a: Aspergillus niger growing Figure b: Onion with black mold on Czapek dox agar in a Petri dish. Dyes: On the whole a large many number of dyes have been used by different researchers but it is not possible to present the data for all the dyes which were tested hence in this review we have concentrated on a few dyes which are most commonly used by the textile industries. Direct Blue 199 Acid Blue 29 Basic Blue 9 Dispersed red 1 Table 2: Different types of dyes. Culture Conditions and Microorganism: Aspergillus niger pellets were used to obtain the paramorphic forms of A. oryzae. Pure culture was maintained on nutrient beef agar medium at 4Â °C or were grown in potato-dextrose broth at pH 5.6, 29 Â ± 1 C on the shaker . After seven days, when sporulation occurred, the biomass was autoclaved at 121 C, 103.42 kPa for 45 min in order to kill the fungal biomass (figure c). The biomass was separated by filtering the growth medium through Whatman No. 1 paper after washing the fungal biomasses it will dried at 80 C for 20 h. The quantification of fungal biomass was carried out using a linear calibration between volumes of fungal pelletized culture and its respective dry weight. The concentration found may have suffered minor modifications, consequently to the procedures made during its paramorphogenesis. Figure c: Biosorbent powdered Biosorption Experiments Experiments were conducted 30 ml of the dye solution at an orbital shaking of 120 cycles/min. The temperature and pH conditions were varied for the different experiments The estimative biomass (autoclaved )for total removal of the dyes were calculated at three different pH values (2.50; 4.50, and 6.50) After the selection of the better pH (2.50), the dye solutions were equipped with the same dye concentration. Therefore, the solutions were inoculated with A. niger pellets (mg mL−1) getting through different biomass concentration. Samples were withdrawn at specified interval of time to monitor dye adsorption by UV-VIS (Scanning was performed between 300 and 800 nm) spectrophotometer at the absorbance maximum of the respective dye.

Pollution Essay: Silent Spring, How Rachel Carson Changed the World :: Environment Environmental Preservation

Silent Spring - How Rachel Carson Changed the World On September 27, 1962 Rachel Carson released her sixth book, Silent Spring. On publication day, the advance sales of Silent Spring totaled 40,000 copies and another 150 copies were sent to the Book of the Month Club (Frontline: Fooling With Nature, 1998). Silent Spring remained on the bestseller list for almost a year. The world was beginning to take notice. Countless experts and organizations have proclaimed Rachel Carsonà ¢s book the starting point of the environmental movement. Carson described numerous case studies where the use of hazardous pesticides, insecticides, and other chemicals led to environmental problems all over the world. Whether directly or indirectly, everything in the environment is connected and affected by each other. Silent Spring describes, in depth, the harmful effects that chemical control has placed on all components of the environment. They include: air, water, land, wildlife, plant life, and humans. I will discuss each of these categories as examined in Silent Spring along with my personal analysis. First I will discuss the damage from chemicals released in the air. Aerial spraying of pesticides, mostly DDT, began on a small scale over farms and forests. With the development of new insecticides and the availability of planes from the war, the sky almost literally turned into a shower of toxic chemicals. The justification behind the massive sprayings of the 1950à ¢s was to exterminate exotic species like the fire ant, and the gypsy moth. The spraying was extremely careless, and resulted in heavily populated towns and cities repeatedly being sprayed with DDT (Carson, 1962). Unfortunately, people and wildlife sprayed with DDT along with other chemicals had no warnings and no way to protect themselves. The government, without consent of those affected, risked the health of those exposed to the pesticides and the quality of the environment. Nearly everyone was exposed to the risks, in a direct or indirect way, from the extensive aerial spraying. As described in the book, the gypsy moth is not a native of the United States. It had persisted in the U.S. for a great number of years without any need for extensive control measures. Carson states, à £Yet drastic action was suddenly taken against them under the end-justifies-the-means philosophyà ¤ (Carson, 1962, p.156). Therefore, unnecessary health risks and damage to the environment were considered acceptable in order to eliminate the gypsy moth, which has repeatedly been unsuccessful. One reason the gypsy moth still thrives is because, like many insects, they have developed resistance to the chemicals targeted against them.

Italian Neorealism Essay -- European Cinema

The aim of this report is to discuss Italian Neorealism (Neorealismo); looking at how the movement played a significant element in European cinema during and after the times of Benito Mussolini’s fascist regime. The report not only looks at how but why Neorealism became a growing phenomenon for filmmakers during its debatable 10 year period, and what implication of messages these Neorealist directors were trying to send out through their films. Backed up by several reliable book sources, the evidence for this report will also highlight the influences Neo-realism has created in modern filmmaking today. Before the dawn of Neorealism, Italy was under great turmoil in the early 1920s suffering from major economic crisis, bank failures and a collapsing government, which would also mean a collapse in the Italian film industry and the ‘Silent Era’ of cinema (Roberts, 2005). When Benito Mussolini took control as the 40th Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 the revival of Italian cinema would be once again be relived, but this time ruled under the control and guidance by Mussolini and his fascist government (Bondanella, 2001). It was not until the mid 1930s that the brutish dictator truly recognized the potential power of media, where in 1935 a special funding was given to the production of Italian films which was used to open up film institutions like the ‘Centro Sperimenale di Cinematografia’ (CSC) film school, and ‘Cinecitta’ (Cinema City) studios in 1937 (Ruberto and Wilson, 2007). The development of these institutions sparked the appearance of early sound cinema, specializing in genres such as comedies, melodramas, musicals and historical films, but were all categorized as ‘propaganda’ and ‘white telephone’ films by many critics due... ...echoslovak New Wave, Denmark’s Dogme 95, and British Social Realism, which all can be seen as notable influences from that of Italian Neorealism. Works Cited Roberts, J. (2005), Benito Mussolini, Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books. Bonandella, P. (2010), Italian Cinema: From Neorealism to the Present (3rd edn), London: The Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. Ruberto, L.E. and Wilson, K.M. (ed.) (2007), Italian Neorealism and Global Cinema, Detroit: Wayne State University Press. Reich, J. and Garofalo, P. (ed.) (2002), Re-viewing Fascism: Italian Cinema, 1922-1943, Indiana: Indiana University Press. Landy, M. (2000), Italian Film, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sorlin, P. (1996), Italian National Cinema 1896-1996, London: Routledge. Shiel, M. (2006), Italian Neorealism: Rebuilding the Cinematic City, London: Wallflower Press.

Thoughts on Whats It Mean To be Human Essay -- Human Nature Essays

Thoughts on What's It Mean To be Human Last year I had a lot of headaches. Two months passed, and I still did not go to the doctor. However, one morning I woke up, and I just could not open my eyes because the pain that I had in my head would not let me. Also I felt dizzy every time that I tried to stand up. I decided to go to the doctor and present my concerns. The doctor recommeded an MRI test. The test indicated that I have a tumor in my pituitary. Thanks to the great development of technology and good equipment such as the computer system that doctor used to test and figure out my disease, I am being treated successfully with the help of doctors and artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence may be described and evaluated by learning about the Turing test, the Loebners contest and discussing basic human nature contrasted with computers. According to www.encarta.com the definition for Artificial Intelligence is a system that makes it possible for a machine to perform functions similar to these performed by human intelligence such as learning, reasoning, self - correcting and adaptive. In other words, machines are able to do what a human does such as learning, reasoning, etc. Then does it mean that computers are intelligent. The most widely spread definition of Artificial Intelligence is called the Turing test. According to Platts article the Turing test has it origin in 1950, when Alan Turing a British mathematician proposed: If a computer successfully impersonate a human during a free- form exchange of the test messages, then for all practical purposes the computer should be considered intelligent(12). Then the Turing test is quite simple. If a computer is found to give answers to questions that cannot be distin... ...owever, computers are never going to replace human intelligence. Even though an MRI can give you a highly enhanced view of your brain, it will always be necessary for a doctor to look at the results and make a diagnosis that a computer is still unable to do. This is, because humans are spontaneous, they are able to do whatever they want to do without another person telling them what to do. Instead, Computers always have to do what somebody else tells them to do and do not think by their own. Works Cited Artificial Intelligence. 2000 www.encarta.com. ( April 10, 2001.) Laucius, Joanne. Otttawa Citizen. Newsweek magazine. December 2000. Platt, Charles. Whats It Mean ToBe Human, Anyway? Composing Cyberspace Identity, Comunnity, and Knowledge in the Electronic Age. Ed. Richard Holeton. US: MC Grow Hill, 1998. 12-20. News. 2000 www.msn.com. (April 10, 2001. )

English Euphemism Essay

Euphemism, as a common linguistic phenomenon in world culture, is widely used in every social class and field. English euphemism, as one of many euphemisms existing in the world, has its own deep origin, which include both the religious origin and the historical, literary origin. This thesis will try to discuss the origin of English euphemism from every aspect of religion, race, politics, literary, and history. Language reflects life, and is always closely related to the society. During the communication, due to some certain restriction of behavior and morality, people tend to use euphemism-used as a kind of lubrication, making the harsh, indelicate words sound tactful and pleasant. English euphemism plays a very important role in people’s social communication. This paper will also expound the social communicative function of English euphemism from the three aspects: evasive function, polite function, and cosmetic function. Having a good understanding of the origin and social function of English euphemism and the English language Culture can avoid many conflicts in the process of social communication . [Key Words] origin; communicative function; evasion; cosmetic function; politeness [Abstract] euphemisms prevalent in the language of the world’s cultural phenomenon, it is widely used in all social strata and fields. Euphemism as a euphemism in one of the many, has its deep roots produced, in which packets of religion and politics, but also literature and history. This paper attempts to religion, race, politics, literature, history, in a bid to explore the emergence of English Euphemisms source. Language reflects life, and always closely linked with social, conversation in the language, due to a certain code of conduct and Ethics constraints, people often use the euphemism —- the ‘lubricant’, making harsh, non – polite euphemism becomes so pleasurable. It is in people’s social communication played an important role. This function of its taboo, courtesy functions and capabilities in three areas to cover up the English language Euphemism illustrates the social communicative functions. Euphemism by fully understanding the origins of English and its social communicative function, and further understand the English language and culture, in order to avoid social communication in the various conflicts. [Keywords:] origin;  communicative function; taboo; politeness; cover 1.Introduction Euphemism is a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept. Every language has its own euphemism, so does English. It is deeply rooted in social life and has a great influence on social communication. As an indispensable and natural pArt of English language, English euphemism has attracted people’s attention for a long time. Since Euphemism was coined, it has played a very important role in people’s communication. The communication without euphemism is unimaginable. Euphemism is used like lubrication, which makes the communication go on smoothly. This thesis will have an overview of the origin of English euphemism, and state its social communicative function. English euphemism as a linguistic concept, it has close relationships with the western culture, and it truly reflects the life and values of English people and their history. Euphemism is a particularly good medium for access to the force of language that has provided an effective approach to understanding the human mind. The study of English euphemism can help us understand the western Culture and promote the international Development because euphemism is widely used in international negotiations. So there is a great need for us to study English euphemism, including: its origin, its social function, etc. 2. The definitions of English euphemism Euphemism is a universal linguistic phenomenon. Nearly in every language, there are some disgusting words, which make people feel embarrassed. In the process of communication, the unsuitable or too direct words will make people feel uncomfortable, even angry. Then there is a great need for us to use a tactful way to express emotion, exchange ideas. That is to say, to use a pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases take the place of tabooed words. It is known that euphemism is a form of language intentionally created in social relation to achieve ideal communication. Without them any language would seem to be vulgar and rude, void of politeness and vividness to some extent. As a common communication in the process of people using language, euphemism is an important way for people to coordinate the social relationships. Like a kind of lubrication, euphemism enables people to express what cannot be uttered directly and ensures communication to be  carried smoothly. It is a language Strategy in civilized society for avoiding taboo. It is unimaginable if the communication is without euphemism. The word ‘euphemism’ was derived from the Greek word ‘euphemismos’, which means ‘fair speech’. The prefix ‘eu’ means ‘good, sound well’ and ‘pheme’ means ‘saying’ or ‘speech’. And thus the literal meaning of ‘euphemism’ is ‘to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner’. That is to say, euphemism is used as an alternative to unpleasant expression, in order to avoid possible lose of face, either one’s own face or through going offense, that of the audience, or some of third of party. This unpleasant expression may be tabooed, fearsome, or for some other reasons that speakers can’t or intend not to use some certain expression directly on some occasion. ‘In Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language is’ the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought substituted ‘. Rawson Blunt, a British writer, defined euphemism as’ a good favorable interpretation of a bad word.†[1 ] ‘Encyclopedia Britannica (1994) also defines euphemism as’ a figure of speech in which something of an unpleasant, distressing or indelicate nature is described in less offensive terms†[2] From the above mentioned, we could clearly see that euphemism is characterized by avoidance language and evasive expression. The speakers use words or expressions as a protective shield against the anger or disapproval of natural or supernatural things. It is one form of language and a linguistic phe nomenon 3.The origins of English euphemism 3.1 The religious origin of English euphemism The earliest English euphemisms come from ‘taboo’. The word ‘taboo’ comes from Togan, a kind of Polynesian. It indicates evasive language or action. [3] The emergence of English euphemism is to meet the need of avoiding taboos. In primitive society, people can’t explain such things as ailment and some supernatural phenomena. ‘People have confusion between the name of the things and things themselves. The name is viewed as an extension of things. Just as the idiom says’ Speak of devil and he appears ‘. Naturally the words or phrases related to such things become taboos.’ [4] In the ancient times, people had blind faith in ghosts and Gods they respected. They whispered and even feared them so they did not dare to address their  names directly. They think it profane to name God. Therefore the names of gods become the earliest taboos. To speak name of gods was to evoke the divinity whose power then had to be confronted. Such dangerous practices were reserved for priests skilled in negotiating with the supernatural. So the usual way to avoid is to employ euphemisms. Therefore, for the religious need, a lot of euphemisms about religion emerged. For example, in order not to desecrate God, people in English-speaking country always use some other name for God instead of calling directly, such as ‘Adonai, the Almighty, Caesar’s Cruth, the Creater, Dod, Gad, Land, Lawks, Lawd.’ [5] The opposite side of god is devil, which is more terrible for people. When people refer to them, they tend to use such euphemisms to replace: D, the Big D, the Evil one, the Black one, the Goodman, Jesse, Old boy, Our father, Lord of lords, King of kings, the Light of the world, etc. [6] From the above mentioned, we can find that religion brings many euphemistic terms in the religious matter, especially the naming and addressing of God to the language. 3.2 The racial and national origins of English euphemism It is known to all, the phenomenon of racial discrimination is deeply rooted in America in which ‘equal opportunity’ is flattered by American white people as an equal right enjoyed by everyone. Due to the pressure of social public opinion, although some whites discriminate the black from their heart, they will not expose this kind of prejudice in public. Meanwhile, few people dare to humiliate and persecute blacks publicly for no reason at all. In other words, the way of discrimination becomes tactful. There are many euphemisms emerging for this reason. In the 1930s, ‘nigger’ is still a neutral noun in England, and has no meaning of humiliating blacks. But since this word has the obvious meaning of discriminating the blacks, most of people in England and Americans use some other euphemistic words, such as ‘colored black’ instead. When talking about some other races, it does not often use the direct words that are related to color. People often use some euphemistic expression, such as the geographic name. 3.3 Historical, literary and Political origins of English euphemism From the time the Normans conquered England in 1066, English has emerged many euphemisms. At that time, the main reason to use euphemism is that the language used by the conquered is often disparaged, and is thought as gross language. The upper  class surely doesn ‘t want to lower their status to use such words. In order to avoid using such gross words, they tend to use’ the elegant words’, which originated from Latin. And these words were mixed into English gradually. There are also many euphemisms in literary works. For example, in Hamlet, Shakespeare use the expression ‘The undiscovered country from whose bourn no traveler returns’ (there has never been a mystery travelers to come back off the country) to express his great sympathy for Hamlet . [7] The famous American writer Mark Twain use ‘release’ to express ‘die’ in his work The Adventure of Tom Sawyer. Besides, politics is a fertile area for the appearance and growth of English euphemism, which is cosmetic in expression but deceptive in nature. Euphemisms of this kind are always consciously and deliberately. The cosmetic euphemism can be easily found in American English. Government’s discussion of the Vietnam War was saturated with euphemisms. Villages burned and inhabitants imprisoned were ‘Pacifications’; the war itself was not a war but a ‘conflict’, the ‘bombing’ becomes ‘logistical strike’ or ‘close air support’, and ‘killing’ becomes ‘wasting the enemy’. These euphemisms are used to deceive and to hide the dirty business of war . [8] The use of such Political euphemisms helps government to beautify the action and prevent people from taking any anti-government action. So in order to satisfy the Political needs, many euphemisms come to exist. 4.The social communicative function of English euphemism From the perspective of language communication, euphemism functions to avoid taboos, to show politeness and conceal feelings. Thanks to euphemism, it is easy for people to accept the things that are likely to make others feel embarrassed or unhappy. It is people’s general character to express their ideas as mildly and tactfully as possible. Euphemism helps people to reach this goal. From the moment euphemism came into existence, it has played a very important role in our daily communication, and help establish a good relationship between human beings and even strengthen the social stability. Euphemism are motivated by the desire not to be offensive. People use them to show their politeness, to avoid being offensive and to meet the psychological and beneficial needs of both speakers and hearers in communication. But sometimes they are used to conceal or cover something. Accordingly, euphemism serves three basic communicative functions: evasive  function, polite function and cosmetic function. 4.1 The evasive function of English euphemism The evasive function of euphemism is to evade using taboos, enabling the speaker to talk about tabooed things freely. These tabooed things are believed to be dangerous to certain individuals, or to the society as a whole, or to be disgusting and unpleasant, and cause fear. Such tabooed things include: disease, disabilities, death, sex, body excretion and body elimination process, etc. People can use euphemisms to talk about what cannot be talked directly. Reposted elsewhere in the paper for free download 4.1.1 In terms of disease and disabilities People yearn for health, and fear for specific disease and every sort of disability. So people always use tactful way to express them. For example, sexual or venereal disease such as syphilis, gonorrhoea, ADIS, etc. Are called ‘social disease’, ‘communicative disease’, etc. in English. Besides, disabilities are very sensitive area in every culture. In English, ‘the disabled, the handicapped, the inconvenienced, the invalid, auditory impaired, hard of hearing, talk with one’s fingers’, etc. are put into service. [9] So euphemism plays a very important function in our social communication. Without it, we sometimes cannot continue our talk. 4.1.2 In terms of death Death is an inevitable stage at the end of life’s journey. It is common Experience of human beings. Yet it has been the source of fear-fear of the loss of loved ones; fear of the end of one’s life; fear of the actual process of dying. Therefore, all these fears, worries, and unpleasant feelings combined lead to verbal taboo of death. Euphemisms concerning death are extremely rich. In English, there are more than seventy euphemisms for ‘death’, including ‘to be gone, to be gone to a better world, to be with God, to breath one’s last, to close one’s day, to depArt from the world forever, to depArt to God, to fall asleep, join the great majority, pass away, etc. [10 ] No matter why this word is used in a certain language, people always tend to use less harsh words 4.1.3 In terms of sex, body  excretion and body elimination process Words relating to sex, procreation and excretion are highly restricted to mention because they may evoke disgusting responses of people. Verbal taboo on them is probably motivated by the intuitive disaster, shame. People all have certain feelings of which they are so ashamed that they don ‘t like to admit even to themselves. In people’s daily life or in some formal occasion, if the talk or discussion refers to something about drainage, people will try to avoid using vulgar language. They tend to use some implied or neutral words to make conversation comfortable. For ordinary people, the safest way to avoid mentioning these things that they have to mention in many circumstances is to use another expression-euphemism to replace the true name of such a thing. For example, in English there are many elegant expressions for ‘going to WC’, such as: to wash one’s hand, to spend a penny, to go and see one’s aunt, to answer the call of nature, because nature calls, etc. [11] ‘The topic concerning being pregnant is touchy because it tends to arouse the association with sexual behaviors.’ To beat round bushes’ is very necessary, such as’ with child ‘,’ anticipating ‘,’ excepting ‘for’ pregnant ‘, etc. [12] Talking about sexual intercourse is taboo. Expressions relating to sex have heavily been veiled for the purpose of avoiding awkwardness and offense. So people use euphemistic words to talk about it. For example, people evade saying ‘hip’ directly which is replaced with ‘buttock’, ‘bottom’, ‘one’s thing’, and ‘secret parts’ donates sex organs of both males and females. 4.1.4 In terms of old age English and Chinese have different feelings about ‘old age’. A Chinese is proud of being old, whereas a westerner will feel irritated and even insulted at mentioning his oldness. In English culture, people do not describe others as or to be described as’ old ‘because the old, who no longer work, are ignored by society. Therefore, people create’ the second childhood golden years, senior citizen, gray hair, mature golden age ‘when they refer to’ old age ‘in which it attempts to conceal the fact of becoming old and avoid arousing old people’s sad feeling of aging. [14] 4.2 The polite function of English euphemism. Politeness is another important function that euphemisms serve in the social  life. Politeness is the symbol of human’s civilization and one of the important principles guiding people’s activities. As a kind of significant social activity, language activity must observe this principle, too. When we have to talk something unpleasant, we should choose euphemistic way to express in order not to hurt others. Being polite is a reasonable action that anyone who is keen on face-saving will take. The polite function of euphemism is tried to avoid being harsh or impolite in the communication. In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions. For instance, when a teacher comments on a student’s moral conducts and school work in front of the student or his or her parent, he or she should report the fact on one hand, and on the other hand should take into consideration the student’s psychological endurance and the paren t’s face. So the euphemistic way to express might be ‘The student is a bit slow for his or her age’ instead of ‘The student is stupid ‘. [15] The polite function of English euphemism is embodied in every occupational language. Occupational discrimination gives people pressure and emotional irritation. Although euphemisms cannot uproot this kind of phenomenon, at least, they can give them some psychological comfort by upgrading of career name. Therefore, ‘ engineer, manager, etc. ‘have become more and more fashionable.’ Dustman ‘is changed to’ sanitary engineer ‘;’ mechanic ‘to’ automobile engineer ‘,’ gardener ‘to’ landscape architect ‘,’ shoemaker ‘to’ shoe rebuilder ‘[16] In English, there are many adjectives about people’s appearance, such as’ good looking, handsome, pretty, charming, attractive’, etc. They are all commendatory words. When talking about someone who is not pretty, we cannot use ‘ugly’ or ‘awfully’. We had better use some euphemisms such as ‘plain, ordinary, not particularly looking’, etc. instead of them. So euphemism’s polite function can save people’s face in their process of communication. It is so important that we cannot neglect it. 4.3 The cosmetic function of English euphemism Besides the evasive and polite function, euphemism has the cosmetic function. This kind of euphemism is usually used in the government, military, politics and commerce. It refers to using good words to beautify things, which are not beautiful in reality and make the thing be more persuaded and acceptable. Because euphemism has the nature of vagueness, to some extent,  it is deceptive. Traditionally speaking, euphemism plays a positive role in social life. Using it, people can avoid some embarrassed and ungracious occasion. But just as every coin has two sides, euphemism has no exception. Using it suitably can coordinate social relationships, but abusing it will mislead the public, will cover up the essence of things. For example, in modern Western society, the poor is called as’ the needy ‘, later it was changed to’ the culturally deprived ‘, then to’ the underprivileged ‘, at last to’ the disadvantaged ‘. So it will confuse peopl e that this country is so rich that there is no poor people at all. Firstly, the government and the military often use them to disguise the reality from truth. They describe ‘Economic crisis’ as ‘recession’ or ‘depression’; ‘attack’ as ‘active defense’. [17] At the beginning of 20th century , the relationship between labor and capital become strained, and the agitation of striking became a serious social problem. In order to hide the fact, politicians call the strained labor-capital relationship as ‘industrial climate’, striking as ‘industrial action’. If the negotiation between labor and capital is successful, it will be claimed as ‘productive’, on the contrary, it is ‘counter-productive’. [18] Secondly, this kind of euphemism is widely used in commerce. It is often used to play tricks and to deceive the customers. The commercial exaggerates the product’s function and quality. In the same way, the English euphemism is also used to make customers feel pleased . For example, in order to meet the passengers’ sense of dignity, some Airlines call First Class Deluxe Class or Premium Class; Second Class First Class; and Third Class become Business Class, Economic Class, or Tourist Class. Doing like these, it seems that all passengers’ position are promoted. Their purpose is to attract more passengers and gain more profits by using euphemisms in the communication, meanwhile, the customers feel more decent, and it helps customers save face. In short, euphemism of this kind may make an idea more palatable, but they inflate language, reduce precision and often tamper with truth. Some people condemn euphemism as demoralizing because of its hypocrisy, which other consider them useful in the aspect of coordinating social relationships . However, the fact remains that euphemisms are very much a part of the language, and what’s more important for us is not to debate their merits or demerits, but rather to be able to realize that English euphemism can serve for the special social activities  under certain circumstance. 5. Conclusion English euphemism as an essential part of English language, is observed everywhere and widely used in people’s daily communication. On the issue of the origin and social communicative function of English euphemism, this thesis has a tentative exploration. But this kind of exploration is in a state of Development because euphemism is developed all the time. Euphemism roots in every aspect of social life, and is developed with the advancement of society. English euphemism is a mirror of Western Culture in the form of English language. From the moment it was born, it has distinct culture color. Euphemism undoubtedly reflects the inner relationship among the cultural tradition, social values and the form of language. In speech interaction, sometimes, out of politeness or tact, one uses a pleasant, less direct word instead of something unpleasant. Using euphemism is speaker’s active pragmatic Strategy in a certain time and a certain situation. English euphemism promotes the Development of English language, and enriches the vocabularies of English language, giving people a feeling of warm and fresh. In the 21st century, with the development of science and technology, many social problems rise, too. People crave for the gentle, warm and easy understood words. Euphemism emerges ceaselessly just right for meeting this psychological need. As a common communication medium and a rhetoric method, English euphemism will be used wider and wider. Some scholars hold the opinion that it is unreasonable to use euphemism because they have the nature of deceit, especially in politics and government. But we cannot deny the fact that euphemism is very helpful in the process of human communication. Twenty-first century is a period when people of different culture have even more touches with each other. So it is vital for us to have a good understanding of English euphemism. It is unimaginable if the diplomatic negotiation is without euphemism. Using euphemism is a kind of language skill that each of us should master. Bibliography [1] Li Qing. A Tentative Study of English Euphemism-From Pragmatic Perspective. Shandong Normal University, a master’s degree thesis in English Language and Literature. 2003 2.24 P2 [2] Wu Chang-Qi An Analysis of Diplomatic Euphemism from the Perspectives of Cooperative Principles and Politeness Principle. 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